Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms

He Xiao-Jie; Wang Hui; Zhang Yi

doi:10.1016/j.cmsj.2026.08.001

Your Location：

Home >

Browse articles >

Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms

中国医学科学杂志 2026年41卷第2期页码：76-83

Review Article | Updated：2026-10-16

- Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms
- Affiliations：
  
  Department of Neurosurgery, Affiliated Hospital of Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang 712046, Shaanxi, China
  Department of Neurosurgery, Shaanxi Nuclear Industry 215 Hospital, Xianyang 712000, Shaanxi, China
- Author bio：
  
  Corresponding author. E-mail: xy215wh2660@163.com (H. Wang) .
- Funds：
- DOI：10.1016/j.cmsj.2026.08.001
  中图分类号：
- 纸质出版：2026-06
- Accepted：
Scan QR Code
He Xiao-Jie, Wang Hui, Zhang Yi. Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms[J]. 中国医学科学杂志, 2026,41(2):76-83.

He Xiao-Jie, Wang Hui, Zhang Yi. Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms[J]. Chinese Medical Sciences Journal, 2026, 41(2): 76-83.
He Xiao-Jie, Wang Hui, Zhang Yi. Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms[J]. 中国医学科学杂志, 2026,41(2):76-83. DOI： 10.1016/j.cmsj.2026.08.001.

He Xiao-Jie, Wang Hui, Zhang Yi. Post-traumatic dementia: Advances in understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms[J]. Chinese Medical Sciences Journal, 2026, 41(2): 76-83. DOI： 10.1016/j.cmsj.2026.08.001.

摘要

Abstract

Traumatic brain injury can trigger long-term neurodegenerative diseases beyond its devastating acute effects. This narrative review summarizes current understanding of the neurodegenerative mechanisms underlying posttraumatic dementia. Core mechanisms involve multiple pathophysiological processes: long-term dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier

which impairs the clearance of toxic proteins; diffuse axonal injury

leading topersistent disruption of axonal transport

dysregulation of calcium homeostasis

and Wallerian-like degeneration; and the abnormal deposition of key pathological proteins such as amyloid-

hyperphosphorylation and propagation of tau protein

and dysfunctional TAR DNA-binding protein-43

all of which disrupt protein homeostasis. In addition

chronic neuroinflammation mediated by microglia and astrocytes acts as a critical link

continuously exacerbating synaptic damage and neurodegeneration through the release of pro-inflammatory factors. Genetic factors

such as the

APOE4

allele

can significantly amplify these pathological processes. Collectively

this evidence indi

cates that traumatic brain injury is not an isolated acute event but rather initiates and accelerates a long-term

multifactorial neurodegenerative cascade

ultimately resulting in cognitive dysfunction. These insights provide important targets for the development of targeted intervention strategies.

关键词

Keywords

references

Zhong H, Feng Y, Shen J, et al. Global burden of traumatic brain injury in 204 countries and territories from 1990 to 2021. Am J Prev Med . 2025;68(4):754-763. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2025.01.001 .

Khalil M, Carsten K, Devin H, et al. Targeted complement inhibition ameliorates the pathological and cognitive outcomes in repetitive mild closed h ead injury. Signal Transduct Target Ther . 2025;10(1):378. doi: 10.1038/s41392-025-02466-7 .

Hammond FM, Pease M. Major advances in traumatic brain injury research in 2025. Lancet Neurol . 2026;25(1):13-14. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(25)00433-8 .

Knopman DS, Amieva H, Petersen RC, et al. Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Dis Primer . 2021;7(1):33. doi: 10.1038/s41572-021-00269-y .

Karran E, De Strooper B. The amyloid hypothesis in Alzheimer disease: new insights from new therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov . 2022;21(4):306-318. doi: 10.1038/s41573-022-00391-w .

Leung KK, Carr FM, Russell MJ, et al. Traumatic brain injuries among veterans and the risk of incident dementia: a systematic review & meta-analysis. Age Ageing . 2022;51:1. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afab194 .

Walter AE, Pike JR, Coresh J, et al. Traumatic brain injury, changes in plasma amyloid, tau, and neurodegenerative biomarkers, and dementia risk. Alzheimers Dement . 2025;21(9):e70611. doi: 10.1002/alz.70611 .

Fann JR, Ribe AR, Pedersen HS, et al. Long-term risk of dementia among people with traumatic brain injury in Denmark: a population-based observational cohort study. Lancet Psychiatry . 2018;5(5):424-431. doi: 10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30065-8 .

Nordström A, Nordström P. Traumatic brain injury and the risk of dementia diagnosis: a nationwide cohort study. PLoS Med . 2018;15(1):e1002496. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002496 .

Barnes DE, Byers AL, Gardner RC, et al. Association of mild traumatic brain injury with and without loss of consciousness with dementia in US military veterans. JAMA Neurol . 2018;75(9):1055. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.0815 .

Brett BL, Gardner RC, Godbout J, et al. Traumatic brain injury and risk of neurodegenerative disorder. Biol Psychiatry . 2022;91(5):498-507. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.05.025 .

Plassman BL, Havlik RJ, Steffens DC, et al. Documented head injury in early adulthood and risk of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias. Neurology . 2000;55(8):1158-1166. doi: 10.1212/wnl.55.8.1158 .

Smith DH, Johnson VE, Stewart W. Chronic neuropathologies of single and repetitive TBI: substrates of dementia. Nat Rev Neurol . 2013;9(4):211-221. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2013.29 .

Mollayeva T, Mollayeva S, Pacheco N, et al. The course and prognostic factors of cognitive outcomes after traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev . 2019;99:198-250. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.011 .

Sun B, Li L, Harris OA, et al. Blood-brain barrier disruption: a pervasive driver and mechanistic link between traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease. Transl Neurodegener . 2025;14(1):16. doi: 10.1186/s40035-025-00478-5 .

Sandsmark DK, Bashir A, Wellington CL, et al. Cerebral microvascular injury: a potentially treatable endophenotype of traumatic brain injury-induced neurodegeneration. Neuron . 2019;103(3):367-379. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.06.002 .

Zanier ER, Bertani I, Sammali E, et al. Induction of a transmissible tau pathology by traumatic brain injury. Brain . 2018;141(9):2685-2699. doi: 10.1093/brain/awy193 .

Snowden TM, Hinde AK, Reid HMO, et al. Does mild traumatic brain injury increase the risk for dementia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis . 2020;78(2):757-775. doi: 10.3233/JAD-200662 .

Murray HC, Osterman C, Bell P, et al. Neuropathology in chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a systematic review of comparative post-mortem histology literature. Acta Neuropathol Commun . 2022;10(1):108. doi: 10.1186/s40478-022-01413-9 .

Dybing KM, Vetter CJ, Dempsey DA, et al. Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: a systematic review of findings from amyloid and tau positron emission tomography. J Neurotrauma . 2025;42(5-6):333-348. doi: 10.1089/neu.2024.0055 .

Takahata K, Kimura Y, Sahara N, et al. PET-detectable tau pathology correlates with long-term neuropsychiatric outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury. Brain . 2019;142(10):3265-3279. doi: 10.1093/brain/awz238 .

Kahriman A, Bouley J, Smith TW, et al. Mouse closed head traumatic brain injury replicates the histological tau pathology pattern of human disease: characterization of a novel model and systematic review of the literature. Acta Neuropathol Commun . 2021;9(1):118. doi: 10.1186/s40478-021-01220-8 .

Bieniek KF, Cairns NJ, Crary JF, et al. The second NINDS/NIBIB consensus meeting to define neuropathological criteria for the diagnosis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol . 2021;80(3):210-219. doi: 10.1093/jnen/nlab001 .

LoBue C, Bickart KC, Bieniek KF, et al. Cognitive impairment and dementia-related diagnoses in chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology . 2025;105(4):e213934. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000213934 .

Zhou Y, Shao A, Yao Y, et al. Dual roles of astrocytes in plasticity and reconstruction after traumatic brain injury. Cell Commun Signal . 2020;18(1):62. doi: 10.1186/s12964-020-00549-2 .

Ramos-Cejudo J, Wisniewski T, Marmar C, et al. Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease: the cerebrovascular link. EBioMedicine . 2018;28:21-30. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2018.01.021 .

Johnson VE, Stewart W, Smith DH. Traumatic brain injury and amyloid- β pathology: a link to Alzheimer's disease. Nat Rev Neurosci . 2010;11(5):361-370. doi: 10.1038/nrn2808 .

Rubenstein R, Chang B, Yue JK, et al. Comparing plasma phospho tau, total tau, and phospho tau-total tau ratio as acute and chronic traumatic brain injury biomarkers. JAMA Neurol . 2017;74(9):1063. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.0655 .

Collins-Praino LE, Corrigan F. Does neuroinflammation drive the relationship between tau hyperphosphorylation and dementia development following traumatic brain injury. Brain Behav Immun . 2017;60:369-382. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.027 .

Sweeney MD, Zhao Z, Montagne A, et al. Blood-brain barrier: from physiology to disease and back. Physiol Rev . 2019;99(1):21-78. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00050. 2017 .

Knox EG, Aburto MR, Clarke G, et al. The blood-brain barrier in aging and neurodegeneration. Mol Psychiatry . 2022;27(6):2659-2673. doi: 10.1038/s41380-022-01511-z .

Díaz-Castro B, Robel S, Mishra A. Astrocyte endfeet in brain function and pathology: open questions. Annu Rev Neurosci . 2023;46:101-121. doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-091922-031205 .

Johnson VE, Weber MT, Xiao R, et al. Mechanical disruption of the blood-brain barrier following experimental concussion. Acta Neuropathol . 2018;135(5):711-726. doi: 10.1007/s00401-018-1824-0 .

Eisenbaum M, Pearson A, Gratkowski A, et al. Influence of traumatic brain injury on extracellular tau elimination at the blood-brain barrier. Fluids Barriers CNS . 2021;18(1):48. doi: 10.1186/s12987-021-00283-y .

Andreone BJ, Chow BW, Tata A, et al. Blood-brain barrier permeability is regulated by lipid transport-dependent suppression of caveolae-mediated transcytosis. Neuron . 2017;94(3):581-594.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.03.043 .

Sweeney MD, Sagare AP, Zlokovic BV. Blood-brain barrier breakdown in Alzheimer disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Nat Rev Neurol . 2018;14(3):133-150. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.188 .

Bi D, Gao B, Shen Y, et al. Traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases: the role of axonal injury and amyloid- β . Brain Res . 2025;1865:149873. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2025.149873 .

Ozgen H, Baron W, Hoekstra D, et al. Oligodendroglial membrane dynamics in relation to myelin biogenesis. Cell Mol Life Sci . 2016;73(17):3291-3310. doi: 10.1007/s00018-016-2228-8 .

Debanne D, Campanac E, Bialowas A. Axon physiology. Physiol Rev . 2011;91(2):555-602. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00048.2009 .

Xu K, Zhong G, Zhuang X. Actin, spectrin, and associated proteins form a periodic cytoskeletal structure in axons. Science . 2013;339(6118):452-456. doi: 10.1126/science.1232251 .

Brahic M, Bousset L, Bieri G, et al. Axonal transport and secretion of fibrillar forms of α -synuclein, A β 42 peptide and HTTExon 1. Acta Neuropathol . 2016;131(4):539-548. doi: 10.1007/s00401-016-1538-0 .

Freundt EC, Maynard N, Clancy EK, et al. Neuron-to-neuron transmission of α -synuclein fibrils through axonal transport. Ann Neurol . 2012;72(4):517-524. doi: 10.1002/ana.23747 .

Jamjoom A, Rhodes J, Andrews P, et al. The synapse in traumatic brain injury. Brain . 2021;144(1):18-31. doi: 10.1093/brain/awaa321 .

Chen XH, Johnson VE, Uryu K, et al. A lack of amyloid beta plaques despite persistent accumulation of amyloid beta in axons of long-term survivors of traumatic brain injury. Brain Pathol . 2009;19(2):214-223. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2008.00176.x .

Greer JE, Hånell A, McGinn MJ, et al. Mild traumatic brain injury in the mouse induces axotomy primarily within the axon initial segment. Acta Neuropathol . 2013;126(1):59-74. doi: 10.1007/s00401-013-1119-4 .

Krukowski K, Nolan A, Becker M, et al. Novel microglia-mediated mechanisms underlying synaptic loss and cognitive impairment after traumatic brain injury. Brain Behav Immun . 2021;98:122-135. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.08.210 .

Hill CS, Coleman MP, Menon DK. Traumatic axonal injury: mechanisms and translational opportunities. Trends Neurosci . 2016;39(5):311-324. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2016.03.002 .

Huang Z, Feng Y, Zhang Y, et al. Enhancing axonal myelination: clemastine attenuates cognitive impairment in a rat model of diffuse traumatic brain injury. Transl Res . 2024;268:40-50. doi: 10.1016/j.trsl.2024.01.008 .

Chen X, Wang F, Gan J, et al. Myelin deficits caused by Olig2 deficiency lead to cognitive dysfunction and increase vulnerability to social withdrawal in adult mice. Neurosci Bull . 2020;36(4):419-426. doi: 10.1007/s12264-019-00449-7 .

Chen JF, Liu K, Hu B, et al. Enhancing myelin renewal reverses cognitive dysfunction in a murine model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuron . 2021;109(14):2292-2307.e5 2292-307.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.05.012 .

Li S, Mealing GA, Morley P, et al. Novel injury mechanism in anoxia and trauma of spinal cord white matt er: glutamate release via reverse Na + dependent glutamate transport. J Neurosci . 1999;19(14):RC16. doi: 10.1523/JNEU-ROSCI.19-14-j0002.1999 .

Stirling DP, Cummins K, Wayne Chen SR, et al. Axoplasmic reticulum Ca 2 + release causes secondary degeneration of spinal axons. Ann Neurol . 2014;75(2):220-229. doi: 10.1002/ana.24099 .

Hemphill MA, Dauth S, Yu CJ, et al. Traumatic brain injury and the neuronal microenvironment: a potential role for neuropathological mechanotransduction. Neuron . 2015;85(6):1177-1192. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.041 .

McCracken E, Hunter AJ, Patel S, et al. Calpain activation and cytoskeletal protein breakdown in the corpus callosum of head-injured patients. J Neurotrauma . 1999;16(9):749-761. doi: 10.1089/neu.1999.16.749 .

Cornell J, Salinas S, Huang HY, et al. Microglia regulation of synaptic plasticity and learning and memory. Neural Regen Res . 2022;17(4):705. doi: 10.4103/1673-5374.322423 .

Lehrman EK, Wilton DK, Litvina EY, et al. CD47 protects synapses from excess microglia-mediated pruning during development. Neuron . 2018;100(1):120-134.e6. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.017 .

Elberg G, Liraz-Zaltsman S, Reichert F, et al. Deletion of SIRP α (signal regulatory protein- α ) promotes phagocytic clearance of myelin debris in Wallerian degeneration, axon regeneration, and recovery from nerve injury. J Neuroinflammation . 2019;16(1):277. doi: 10.1186/s12974-019-1679-x .

Wang C, Yue H, Hu Z, et al. Microglia mediate forgetting via complementdependent synaptic elimination. Science . 2020;367(6478):688-694. doi: 10.1126/science.aaz2288 .

Scott-Hewitt N, Perrucci F, Morini R, et al. Local externalization of phosphatidylserine mediates developmental synaptic pruning by microglia. EMBO J . 2020;39(16):e105380. doi: 10.15252/embj.2020105380 .

Filipello F, Morini R, Corradini I, et al. The microglial innate immune receptor TREM2 is required for synapse elimination and normal brain connectivity. Immunity . 2018;48(5):979-991.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.04.016 .

Sloley SS, Main BS, Winston CN, et al. High-frequency head impact causes chronic synaptic adaptation and long-term cognitive impairment in mice. Nat Commun . 2021;12(1):2613. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-22744-6 .

Wang W, Zhang X, He R, et al. Gamma frequency entrainment rescues cognitive impairment by decreasing postsynaptic transmission after traumatic brain injury. CNS Neurosci Ther . 2023;29(4):1142-1153. doi: 10.1111/cns.14096 .

Masi M, Biundo F, Fiou A, et al. The labyrinthine landscape of APP processing: state of the art and possible novel soluble APP-related molecular players in traumatic brain injury and neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci . 2023;24(7):6639. doi: 10.3390/ijms24076639 .

DeTure MA, Dickson DW. The neuropathological diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener . 2019;14(1):32. doi: 10.1186/s13024-019-0333-5 .

Wu Y, Bogale TA, Koistinaho J, et al. The contribution of β -amyloid, tau and α synuclein to blood-brain barrier damage in neurodegenerative disorders. Acta Neuropathol . 2024;147(1):39. doi: 10.1007/s00401-024-02696-z .

Silva SPd, de Castro CCM, Rabelo LN, et al. Neuropathological and sociodemographic factors associated with the cortical amyloid load in aging and Alzheimer's disease. Geroscience . 2024;46(1):621-643. doi: 10.1007/s11357-023-00982-4 .

Thal DR, Rüb U, Orantes M, et al. Phases of A beta-deposition in the human brain and its relevance for the development of AD. Neurology . 2002;58(12):1791-1800. doi: 10.1212/wnl.58.12.1791 .

Alonso AC, Zaidi T, Grundke-Iqbal I, et al. Role of abnormally phosphorylated tau in the breakdown of microtubules in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1994;91(12):5562-5566. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.12.5562 .

Kawata K, Liu CY, Merkel SF, et al. Blood biomarkers for brain injury: what are we measuring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev . 2016;68:460-473. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.05.009 .

Biernat J, Gustke N, Drewes G, et al. Phosphorylation of Ser262 strongly reduces binding of tau to microtubules: distinction between PHF-like immunoreactivity and microtubule binding. Neuron . 1993;11(1):153-163. doi: 10.1016/0896-6273(93)90279-z .

Neil D, Hintermayer Matthew A, Jacqueline P, et al. MAPK family members differentially regulate pThr175 tau-mediated pathogenicity. Neurobiol Dis . 2026;218:107223. doi: 10.1016/j.nbd.2025.107223 .

Kim N, Wang B, Koikawa K, et al. Inhibition of death-associated protein kinase 1 attenuates cis P-tau and neurodegeneration in traumatic brain injury. Prog Neurobiol . 2021;203:102072. doi: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102072 .

Huber BR, Meabon JS, Martin TJ, et al. Blast exposure causes early and persistent aberrant phospho- and cleaved-tau expression in a murine model of mild blast-induced traumatic brain injury. J Alzheimers Dis . 2013;37(2):309-323. doi: 10.3233/JAD-130182 .

Merlini M, Wanner D, Nitsch RM. Tau pathology-dependent remodelling of cerebral arteries precedes Alzheimer's disease-related microvascular cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Acta Neuropathol . 2016;131(5):737-752. doi: 10.1007/s00401-016-1560-2 .

Klim JR, Pintacuda G, Nash LA, et al. Connecting TDP-43 pathology with neuropathy. Trends Neurosci . 2021;44(6):424-440. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2021.02.008 .

McKee AC, Cantu RC, Nowinski CJ, et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in athletes: progressive tauopathy after repetitive head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol . 2009;68(7):709-735. doi: 10.1097/NEN.0b013e3181a9d503 .

Montine TJ, Phelps CH, Beach TG, et al. National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease: a practical approach. Acta Neuropathol . 2012;123(1):1-11. doi: 10.1007/s00401-011-0910-3 .

Gao F, Hu M, Zhang J, et al . TDP-43 drives synaptic and cognitive deterioration following traumatic brain injury. Acta Neuropathol . 2022;144(2):187-210. doi: 10.1007/s00401-022-02449-w .

Lai JD, Berlind JE, Fricklas G, et al. KCNJ2 inhibition mitigates mechanical injury in a human brain organoid model of traumatic brain injury. Cell Stem Cell . 2024;31(4):519-536.e8. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2024.03.004 .

Blennow K, Hardy J, Zetterberg H. The neuropathology and neurobiology of traumatic brain injury. Neuron . 2012;76(5):886-899. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.11.021 .

Kwon HS, Koh SH. Neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disorders: the roles of microglia and astrocytes. Transl Neurodegener . 2020;9(1):42. doi: 10.1186/s40035-020-00221-2 .

Glass CK, Saijo K, Winner B, et al. Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell . 2010;140(6):918-934. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.02.016 .

Faden AI, Loane DJ. Chronic neurodegeneration after traumatic brain injury: alzheimer disease, chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or persistent neuroinflammation. Neurotherapeutics . 2015;12(1):143-150. doi: 10.1007/s13311-014-0319-5 .

Johnson VE, Stewart JE, Begbie FD, et al. Inflammation and white matter degeneration persist for years after a single traumatic brain injury. Brain . 2013;136(Pt 1):28-42. doi: 10.1093/brain/aws322 .

Paladini MS, Yang BA, Torkenczy KA, et al. Fate mapping of peripherally-derived macrophages after traumatic brain injury in mi ce reveals a long-lasting population with a distinct transcriptomic signature. Nat Commun . 2025;16(1):8898. doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-63952-8 .

David S, Kroner A. Repertoire of microglial and macrophage responses after spinal cord injury. Nat Rev Neurosci . 2011;12(7):388-399. doi: 10.1038/nrn3053 .

Butovsky O, Jedrychowski MP, Moore CS, et al. Identification of a unique TGF- β -dependent molecular and functional signature in microglia. Nat Neurosci . 2014;17(1):131-143. doi: 10.1038/nn.3599 .

Gordon S. Alternative activation of macrophages. Nat Rev Immunol . 2003;3(1):23-35. doi: 10.1038/nri978 .

Sica A, Mantovani A. Macrophage plasticity and polarization: in vivo veritas. J Clin Invest . 2012;122(3):787-795. doi: 10.1172/JCI59643 .

Gao HM, Liu B, Hong JS. Critical role for microglial NADPH oxidase in rotenoneinduced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. J Neurosci . 2003;23(15):6181-6187. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-15-06181.2003 .

Loane DJ, Kumar A, Stoica BA, et al. Progressive neurodegeneration after experimental brain trauma: association with chronic microglial activation. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol . 2014;73(1):14-29. doi: 10.1097/NEN.0000000000000021 .

Simon DW, McGeachy MJ, Bay ı r H, et al. The far-reaching scope of neuroinflammation after traumatic brain injury. Nat Rev Neurol . 2017;13(3):171-191. doi: 10.1038/nrneurol.2017.13 .

Colombo E, Farina C. Astrocytes: key regulators of neuroinflammation. Trends Immunol . 2016;37(9):608-620. doi: 10.1016/j.it.2016.06.006 .

Oksanen M, Lehtonen S, Jaronen M, et al. Astrocyte alterations in neurodegenerative pathologies and their modeling in human induced pluripotent stem cell platforms. Cell Mol Life Sci . 2019;76(14):2739-2760. doi: 10.1007/s00018-019-03111-7 .

Carter SF, Herholz K, Rosa-Neto P, et al. Astrocyte biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease. Trends Mol Med . 2019;25(2):77-95. doi: 10.1016/j.molmed.2018.11.006 .

Lam V, Albrecht MA, Takechi R, et al. The serum concentration of the calcium binding protein S100B is positively associated with cognitive performance in older adults. Front Aging Neurosci . 2013;5:61. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2013.00061 .

Liddelow SA, Barres BA. Reactive astrocytes: production, function, and therapeutic potential. Immunity . 2017;46(6):957-967. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2017.06.006 .

Blumenfeld J, Yip O, Kim MJ, et al. Cell type-specific roles of APOE4 in Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurosci . 2024;25(2):91-110. doi: 10.1038/s41583-023-00776-9 .

Li Y, Macyczko JR, Liu CC, et al. ApoE4 reduction: an emerging and promising therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging . 2022;115:20-28. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.03.011 .

浏览量

Downloads

Scopus

文章被引用时，请邮件提醒。

Submit

关联资源

Dedication to a lifelong mission: Gu Fangzhou and the Chinese road to polio elimination

Continuous wound infiltration with local anesthetics in adult patients undergoing cardiac surgery: A PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis

Global epidemiological and indirect economic burden of neurological, mental, and substance use disorders: An analysis based on the global burden of disease data

A predictive model for heart failure in patients with hypertension and persistent atrial fibrillation: A retrospective single-center study

Gu Fangzhou: A monument to polio elimination in China